Language learning strategy

Theoretical background of language learning strategies

1.     Theories of general learning

Learners of languages find themselves in diverse learning/teaching contexts, yet all of them regularly use strategies to help them master the language they are learning.Those strategies can be define as: the learners goal-directed actions for improving language proficiency or achievement, competing a task, or making learning more efficient, more effective, and easier. (Oxford, 2011a)

One of the concepts that has had an impact on language learning startegies is that of an austonomous language learner (Holec,1981), which started to appear in the literature on language learning strategies in the last couple of decades.

According to the behaviourist theory learning general as well as the learning of languages happened as a result of habbit formation. This theory has little to offer to language learning strategy background as it ignores the importance of mental processes during learning.

Piaget (1954) , he has been extremely influential in developing educational policy and teaching. His concept of discovery learning-the idea that children learn best through doing and actively exploring-was seen as central in primary school curriculum. Learning should be student-centered and the role of the teacher is to facilitate learning rather than offer direct tuition (McLeod, 2009). For example, teachers should encourage their learners to use active methods that require rediscovering or reconstructing the reality.

Bruner (1960) stressed the importance of education in forming autonomous learners, or teaching children how to learn. His main premise was that students are active learners who construct their own knowledge throught discovery learning, and they do this by organizing and categoring information using a coding system. Bruner believe that the most effective way to develop according system is to help learners discover it rather than explicity teach it. The purpose of education is not to impart knowledge, but instead to facilitate a child’s thinking and problem solving skills which can then be transferred to a range of situation (McLeod 2008).

The concept of scaffolding involves helpful, structured interaction between an adult and a child with thw aim of helping the child achieve a specific goal.

2.     Language acquisition theories

Skinner’s Verbal Behavior published in 1957 offered one of the earliest scientific explanations of language acquisition. As one of the pioneers of developmental psychology, in particular behaviourism, Skinner accounted for language development by means of the influence the environment exerts on the child will learn a language by associating words with meanings, based on behaviourist reinforcement principles.

Universal Grammar (UG) was the concept proposed by Chomsky (1965), by which he means abstract knowledge of innate grammatical categories (noun, verbs, etc.) that facilitate language development and language processing in general.

Although the generativists are still trying to convince that language is a task too demending to acquire without specific innate equipment, while the constuctivists are fiercely arguing for the importance of linguistic input, those attempts to discover psychological correlates to language learning have yielded very interesting interpretations of language comprehension and production according to Stern (1983). He points out that conscious processes and language learning strategies have now been made implicit in the use of language.

3.     Second Language acquisition SLA theories

According to lightbown and Spada (1993) this view holds that learners ‘construct’ internal representation of the language they are learning, which can be described as ‘metal picture’ of the language. Those internal representation are believed to systematically develop towards a full second language acquisition.

Krashen’s Monitor model comparises five central  hypothesis:

a.       The acquisition-learning hypothesis, second language can be learned in two ways, by Acquisition and by Learning, where acquisition means an unintentional, natural ways of engagaing in meaningful interaction and as a result acquiring language, while learning is a conscious process of study usually accosiated with a formal classroom context.

b.      The monitor hypothesis means that the acquired system of language helps fluency and intuitive knowledge of correctness, while the learned system only plays the role of an editor.

c.       Natural order hypothesis, in the wake of Brown’s investigation of the first language acquisition.

d.      Comprehensible input (like scaffolding), which according to Krashen in a level above the current learner’s level of knowledge.

e.       The affective filter hypothesis, refers to the affective state of learner is relaxed and motivated, he cannot use the input available in the environment (O’Brien,2000).

The most relevant advantages of viewing second language acquisition as a complex cognitive skill for the purpose of this research is that, firsly, it provides a mechanism for describing how language learning ability can be improved and secondly, it pertains to the development and use of learning strategies in second language instruction (O’Malley & Chamot,1990:19)

During the learners process, error of omission, overgeneralization, negative transfer or simplification occur, but those should be viewed as evidence of learning strategy use. It becomes obvious that the role of strategies during second language acquisition is not only recognized but also emphasized in the interlanguage theory.

4.     Model of cognitive views of second/foreign language learning

Bialystok’s (1978) model, more than any other mentioned herein, is explicit about the role of language learning strategies. Learning process arevuniversal and interdependent, while learning strategies are concerned, there are four categories in the model: inferencing, monitoring, formal practicing,and functional practicing.

Mc Laughlin, Rossman and McLeod (1983), in their model of second language acquisition, place even more emphasis on the cognitive role of the learner as an active organizer of the linguistic information they receive, with processing limitations and capabilities according to O’malley and Chamot (1990). They look at second language learning from a human information processing perspective, which derives from cognitive psychology concerned with the processes of learning, perception, memory, problem solving, and decision making. According to this model, the learner stores and retrieves information based on how much of that information has been processed. That processing is initially controlled, but practice allows for automatization which is achieved through the restructuring of the learner’s interlanguage (McLaughlin,1987). The most relevantpoint is that, during restructuring, language learning strategies facilitate the learner to become more independent by moving from the controlled to the automatic phase (Psaltou-Joycey,2010)

As a result, full autonomy is difficult to achieve during second language learning despite the fact that learners reach a fair degree of proceduralization through practice and can use rules of the language without awareness.

5.     The ‘Good language learner studies

GGL studies is the name applied to a group of studies in the field of second language acquisition which shared a common interest. They all sought to establish what it is that successful language learners do that makes them learn langauges more efficiently and effectively.

In 1978 Naiman, Frohlich, Stern, and Todesco published the good language learner, which proved ti become a particularly influential study on the characteristic and learning startegies of successful language learners. They studied language learning experiences of adults and children with the intent to discover wether successful learners.

In the same book Rubin (2008:10-15) summarizes the constibution of the good language learner studies to the shift toward including the learner in both research and teaching and the new trend towards learner-centered rather than teacher-centered approach to learning/teaching languages as well as approaching learners as individuals (Nunan, 1988;Brown,2000; Cook & Cook, 2001).

6.     The concept of autonomy

The importance of autonomy in language learning is generally recognized by researchers and educators (Dam, 1995; Benson & Voller, 1997); however, as far as its meaning is concerned, it is difficult to describe precisely.

Macaro (2001:20) also admits to a close link between the concept of learner stretegies and that of learner autonomy. He explain that the demands of the modern world and the constantly changing global situation require autonomous language who will be able to independently develop their language skills if or when they find themselves in a new learning context. However, he notices that autonomy is a learning concept that is difficult to grasp and has not become such a solid part of  education. While acknowledging that the link between learner autonomy and language learning strategy exists, he points out that the concept of learning strategies is more definable,accessible and operational.

7.     The concept of self-regulation

According to Zimmerman (2000) self-regulation in general learning refers to “thoughts, feelings and actions that are planned and adapted to the attainment of personal goals” and, according to Schunk and Ertmer (2000) self-regulated learning includes: setting goals for learning, concentrating on instruction, using effective strategies to organize ideas, using resources effectively, monitoring performance, managing time effectively, and holding positive beliefs about one’s capabilities.

The strategic Self-Regulation (S2R) Model of L2 learning put forward by oxford build upon the concept of matastrategies which are very general strategies for organizing concrete solutions to specific promblems and should be expanded beyond the cognitive to the affective and social-interactive areas. They guide and control the use of cognitive, affective and socialcultural-interactive strategies at either the task level or the whole process level (Oxford,2011b:289)

Summary

          This chapter has offered an account of theories of how learning in general and learning of languages in particular take place, as well as how various models of cognition depict the learning process. The emphasis is placed on the role of language learning strategies within various theoretical frameworks. The crucial cocncepts relevant to the recognition of LLS (what makes a good language learner, learner autonomy and self-regulation) have contributed significantly to the interest yo investigate their benefits to the success in learning a second/foreign language and have paved the way of defining and classifying the numerous strategies employed by language learners. The rationale for investigating language learning strategies in order to depict the strategic profile is provided as well. The next chapter present an overview of definition and taxonomies of LLS and the ways in which they can be measured.